Yet laboratory experiments, which have attempted to examine the cognitive processes involved in risk appraisal, suggests that this is doing teens a deep injustice. These studies often take the form of gambling tasks. They might be given a multi-coloured spinner with an arrow in the middle, for instance. If the spinner lands on the correct colour, they have the chance of winning $10 (£9) – but there is a 50% chance of not winning anything. Or they could opt to take a smaller, but guaranteed pay-out of $5 (£4.50).

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