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Index Pictures Identity Summary of Invasiveness Taxonomic Tree Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature Description Distribution Distribution Table History of Introduction and Spread Introductions Risk of Introduction Habitat Habitat List Biology and Ecology Climate Notes on Natural Enemies Means of Movement and Dispersal Pathway Causes Pathway Vectors Impact Summary Impact: Economic Impact: Environmental Impact: Social Uses List Similarities to Other Species/Conditions References Links to Websites Contributors Distribution Maps Summary Last modified 22 November 2019 Datasheet Type(s) Documented Species Host Animal Preferred Scientific Name Psittacus erithacus Preferred Common Name African grey parrot Taxonomic Tree Domain: Eukaryota Kingdom: Metazoa Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Aves Summary of Invasiveness The African grey parrot (P. erithacus), together with the recently separated Timneh parrot (P. timneh) are amongst the most popular avian pets in Europe, the USA and the Middle East. Consequently, their native populations in the... More... Psittacus erithacus (African grey parrot); captive bird, perched on feeding tray.More informationDistribution mapDistribution mapMore information Don't need the entire report? Generate a print friendly version containing only the sections you need.

Generate report Expand all sections Collapse all sections Pictures Top of page Identity Top of page Summary of Invasiveness Top of page The African grey parrot (P. erithacus), together with the recently separated Timneh parrot (P. timneh) are amongst the most popular avian pets in Europe, the USA and the Middle East. Consequently, their native populations in the rainforests of West and Central Africa are suffering from the harvesting of wild birds for the international pet trade. Both are listed in the IUCN red list as ‘endangered’ (having been upgraded from 'vulnerable' between 2013 and 2016) and various trade restrictions and captive breeding programmes have been implemented. Both species were transferred to Appendix I of CITES in 2016 prohibiting international trade in wild specimens for commercial purposes.

Although establishment in the wild could be expected in parts of the Caribbean and southeast mainland USA, there have been no reports of damage from escaped birds in these areas. In Florida, although there have been multiple escapes or introductions, there is no confirmed breeding in the wild (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, 2017). Current literature surrounding this species does not consider P. erithacus as an invasive species, although Cardador et al. (2017) map areas at potential risk of invasion based on climatic similarity with the native range.

Taxonomic Tree Top of page Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature Top of page Description Top of page Distribution Top of page P. erithacus is native to West and Cental Africa. It has a distribution extending from southeastern Côte d'Ivoire east through the moist lowland forests of West Africa to Cameroon, in the Congo forests to just east of the Albertine Rift (up to the shores of Lake Victoria and including several islands in the lake) in Uganda and Kenya and south to northern Angola (Juniper and Parr, 1998), as well as on the islands of Principe (São Tomé and Príncipe) and Bioko (Equatorial Guinea).

Population declines have been noted in Burundi, Cameroon, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Togo, Uganda and parts of Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In all of these declines, trapping for the wild bird trade has been implicated, with habitat loss also having significant impacts throughout West and East Africa (BirdLife International, 2013; IUCN, 2013, Martin et al., 2014). Trade and habitat change have virtually eliminated the species from Ghana (Annorbah et al., 2016).

Distribution Table Top of page History of Introduction and Spread Top of page Introductions Top of page Search Search Search Search Search Search Search Search Search Europe Africa 1983-2003 Pet trade (pathway cause) No No Juste (1995); Melo and O'Ryan (2007) deliberate Middle East Africa 1983-2003 Pet trade (pathway cause) No No Juste (1995); Melo and O'Ryan (2007) deliberate USA Africa 1983-2003 Pet trade (pathway cause) No No Juste (1995); Melo and O'Ryan (2007) deliberate Risk of Introduction Top of page P. erithacus is one of the most popular avian pets in Europe, the USA and the Middle East due to its longevity and unparalleled ability to mimic human speech and other sounds. Demand for wild birds is growing in China, and increased presence of Chinese businesses in central Africa (particularly for mining, oil and logging) may result in even more illegal exports of this species (BirdLife International, 2017). Martin (2017) reports that in 2006-2014, most captive-bred exports of P. erithacus originated from South Africa, with the Arabian Peninsula and central, southern and southeastern Asia being important importers.

Annorbah et al. (2016) report precipitous population declines in Ghana from a combination of trapping and habitat loss. The species is especially vulnerable to trapping pressure because it concentrates in traditional roosting, drinking and mineral lick sites. Habitat loss is undoubtedly a contributing factor, particularly throughout West and East Africa. In addition to capture for international trade, there is an active internal trade in live birds for pets and exhibition in Nigeria (McGowan, 2001). The species is also hunted in relatively small numbers in parts of its range for bush meat or medicine and black magic where the heads, legs and tail feathers are used (Fotso, 1998; McGowan, 2001; Clemmons, 2003).

In Florida, repeated introductions and/or escapes of grey parrots have not led to a confirmed breeding population in the wild, suggesting that the species may not become invasive where introduced (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, 2017). Cardador et al. (2017) present a map showing areas where there is a risk of invasion, based on trade patterns and climatic suitability for establishment in the wild. Climatically suitable areas include large parts of South America, south and southeast Asia, and the far north of Australia.

Habitat Top of page African grey parrots usually inhabit dense moist lowland forests, although they can be found in areas up to 2200 m altitude in the eastern parts of their range. They are commonly observed at forest edges, clearings, gallery forests, mangroves, wooded savannahs, cultivated areas, and gardens (Juniper and Parr, 1998). They often visit open land adjacent to woodlands and roost in trees over water or may prefer roosting on islands in rivers. These parrots make their nests in tree holes, sometimes choosing locations abandoned by other birds like woodpeckers. Annorbah et al. (2016) report a strong preference for very tall trees for nesting and roosting, and that local survey respondents said that nest trees were often located outside rather than inside forest reserves.

Habitat List Top of page Biology and Ecology Top of page Reproductive Biology

African grey parrots are very social birds. Breeding occurs in loose colonies with each pair usually occupying its own tree. Nests are typically 10-30 m above ground in tree cavities (Juniper and Parr, 1998). Both P. erithacus and P. timneh have a preference for tall, mature trees for nesting (Annorbah et al., 2016; Lopes et al., 2017).

Individuals select mates carefully and have a long-term monogamous bond that begins at sexual maturity (3-5 years of age). Males feed mates (courtship feeding) and both sing soft monotonous notes. At this time the female will sleep in the nest cavity while the male guards it. In captivity, males feed females after copulation events and both sexes participate in a mating dance in which they droop their wings (Athan, 1999; Pepperberg, 2006). The breeding season varies by locality, but appears to coincide with the dry season. Females lay three to five roundish eggs, one each at intervals of two to five days. Females incubate the eggs while being fed entirely by the male. Incubation takes approximately 30 days and the young emerge from the nest at 12 weeks old. After the young emerge from the nest, both parents feed, raise and protect them. Both parents care for their clutch of young until they reach independence (Athan, 1999; Pepperberg, 2006).

Lopes et al. (2017) present a detailed study of the breeding biology of Psittacus timneh, previously regarded as a subspecies of P. erithacus, in Guinea-Bissau.

Longevity

BirdLife International (2017) list a generation length for P. erithacus of 15.5 years. Young et al. (2011) list the maximum lifespan in captivity as 48 years, and the median lifespan of adults aged over 4 years as just over 8 years.

Activity Patterns

Wild African grey parrots are very shy and rarely allow humans to approach them. They are highly social and nest in large groups, historically containing up to 10,000 individuals, although family groups occupy their own nesting tree (Juniper and Parr, 1998). They are often observed roosting in large, noisy flocks calling loudly during mornings and evenings and in flight. These flocks are composed of only African grey parrots, unlike other parrots that are often found in mixed flocks. During the day, they break into smaller flocks and fly long distances to forage. They often roost in trees over water and are said to prefer roosting on islands in rivers.

Social Learning and Behaviour

Young birds stay with their family groups for a long period of time, up to several years. They socialize with others of their age in nursery trees, but remain in their family group within the larger flock. Young African grey parrots are cared for by older birds until they are educated enough and old enough to become independent flock members. Young exhibit appeasement behaviors towards older members. As they mature, birds become more aggressive with conspecifics.

African grey parrots in the wild must learn a complex set of skills. They need to learn how to separate desirable food plants from toxic plants, how to defend territory, how to recognize and avoid predators, how to find safe water, and how to rejoin their families when separated. Also, they must learn how to develop role-appropriate behaviours such as competing and defending nest sites and raising offspring. Competition for nest holes during mating season makes the species extremely aggressive. Because African grey parrots are partial ground feeders, there is a series of behavioral events that occur before landing and safe consumption takes place. Groups of parrots gather at a barren tree until it is completely filled with hundreds of birds that partake in preening, climbing, vocalizing, and socializing. Eventually the birds make their way down to the ground in waves with the entire group never being on the ground at the same time. Once on the ground, they are extremely vigilant, reacting to any movement and/or sound (Athan, 1999; Athan and Deter, 2000; Galef, 2004; Luescher, 2006).

Studies have found that African grey parrots have complex cognition and are considered one of the most intelligent species of animal. They have been found to test and form ideas about the world. In an experiment performed by Galef (2004), African grey parrots were observed to copy a variety of actions involving six different body parts and to associate each action with its appropriate label. This is a form of social learning and imitation (Galef, 2004; Pepperberg, 2006; Pepperberg, 2007).

Population Size and Structure

BirdLife International (2017) report that there have been population declines in Burundi, Cameroon, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Nigeria, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Sierra Leone, Togo, Uganda and parts of Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In all of these declines, trapping for the wild bird trade has been implicated, with habitat loss also having significant impacts throughout West and East Africa. Annorbah et al. (2016) suggested that Ghana has lost 90-99% of its grey parrots since 1992. While BirdLife International (2017) present a coarse assessment of the global population of P. erithacus as 0.56-12.7 million individuals, even this widely varying figure is likely to be out of date, and based mainly on estimates of density in different habitats. Annorbah et al. (2016) suggest that population declines are severe throughout the West African part of the range of the species, while Marsden et al. (2015) also suggest that the few available data indicate a collapse of populations from almost everywhere west of Cameroon.

Nutrition

African grey parrots are herbivores and can feed in groups of up to 30 birds. In the wild, they feed primarily on a variety of nuts, fruits and seeds supplemented by leafy matter, insects, bark and flowers (Juniper and Parr, 1998).